Trente années complètes de données altimétriques homogènes et intercalibrées, de janvier 1993 à décembre 2022 sur un poster édité par le Centre de…
Sea heights
Sea heights are the elevation of the sea surface relative to a reference surface (reference ellipsoid, geoid). These sea levels can be calculated according to different time references, depending on whether they include an instantaneous value (at a t time) or a change over time (dh/dt) or a reference period.
Sea surface heights at a t time
SSH is commonly referred to as sea surface heights observed at a t time, when they are referenced to a geometric reference, the reference ellipsoid. This is directly deduced from the altimeter measurement: SSH = satellite altitude (orbit) - altimeter distance (range).
We also distinguish the absolute dynamic topography at a time t (ADT), i.e. the sea surface heights expressed in relation to the geoid at a time t.
SSH and ADT are independent of any reference period.
SLA : sea level anomalies at t time correspond to a sea level minus an average of sea levels calculated over a reference period (see MSS). They are referenced to the reference ellipsoid. They give the image of areas where the heights are higher (positive anomalies) or lower (negative anomalies) than the average.
All these surfaces are linked by the following equations (where p denotes a reference period):
SLAp = SSH – MSSp
ADT = SLAp + MDTp
MSSp = MDTp + Geoid
Sea surface heights expressed over a given period
MDT : The average dynamic topography is the average height of the ocean relative to the geoid. This average is calculated over a reference period long enough to avoid interannual fluctuations. It is the image of the oceanic relief corresponding to the permanent ocean circulation.
MSS : the mean ocean surface is the average height of the ocean relative to a reference ellipsoid. This average is calculated over a reference period long enough to avoid interannual fluctuations. The MSS is the average of the SSH over a given reference period.
MSL : Rise in mean sea level corresponds to a change in sea level over time. It is therefore always expressed with a reference in time. In 2017, this rise is 3.29 mm/year over all the oceans. According to observations, this elevation has reached 8 cm since 1993. In 2017, models, in their most extreme scenarios, estimate an increase in mean sea level over all oceans to more than 2 m by 2100.
Because it integrates the response of several components of the climate system (thermal expansion of water due to its warming, melting of polar ice caps and glaciers, contribution of continental waters), sea level is one of the most important indicators of global warming.
More information
- on the DUACS website: reference surfaces et reference surfaces
- on the SHOM website for reference surfaces relative to coastal references incorporating specific levels, such as lowest sea levels, hydrographic zero.
Satellite and in-situ measurements
Since 1992 and the launch of Topex/Poseidon, altimetry radar satellites have been used to make accurate measurements of sea level. These so-called "conventional" altimeters measure at the nadir of their track, i.e. over a limited area along the satellite track, which limits spatial sampling. Combining a dataset from a constellation of satellites in orbit at the same time optimizes this spatial sampling to achieve a mesoscale description of ocean circulation.
Other types of altimetry satellites, with SAR or interferometric modes, are capable of performing both high-resolution measurements to access smaller spatial scales and over a large area. The launch of the SWOT satellite, starting in 2021, is part of this generation of interferometer altimeter capable of describing sub-mesoscale ocean circulation, up to spatial resolutions of 15 km.
Other remote sensing or in-situ measurement techniques can supplement or even correct measurements from altimeter radars: satellite measurements or meteorological models can quantify the water content in the atmosphere to correct the delay in the radar wave, gravimetric satellite measurements can calculate mass effects and correct the effects of post-glacial rebound to calculate the mean sea level. In-situ temperature and salinity profiles are used to calculate the steric effect, i.e. the rise in level due to variations in temperature and salinity (warm and/or saltier waters expand).
Tide gauges networks are also a valuable source of observation for measuring the rise in mean sea level (more information on the Ocean Tides pages).
More information
- on the AVISO+ website: altimetric principle et multi-satellite observations
Scientific publications
- Ablain M., Larnicol G., Faugere Y., Cazenave A., Meyssignac B., Picot N., Benveniste J., 2012, Error Characterization of Altimetry Measurements at Climate Scales, in Proceedings of the “20 Years of Progress in Radar Altimetry” Symposium, Venice, Italy, 24-29 September 2012, Benveniste, J. and Morrow, R., Eds., ESA Special Publication SP-710, 2012. DOI:10.5270/esa.sp-710.altimetry2012
- Ablain, M. 2013. Validation Report: WP2500 Regional SSH Bias Corrections between Altimetry Missions. (document)
- M. Ablain, A. Cazenave, G. Larnicol, M. Balmaseda, P. Cipollini, Y. Faugère, M. J. Fernandes, O. Henry, J. A. Johannessen, P. Knudsen, O. Andersen, J. Legeais, B. Meyssignac, N. Picot, M. Roca, S. Rudenko, M. G. Scharffenberg, D. Stammer, G. Timms, and J. Benveniste, Improved sea level record over the satellite altimetry era (1993–2010) from the Climate Change Initiative project, Ocean Sci., 11, 67-82, doi:10.5194/os-11-67-2015, 2015
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- Chelton D., G. Dibarboure , M.-I. Pujol, G. Taburet , M. G. Schlax: The Spatial Resolution of AVISO Gridded Sea Surface Height Fields, OSTST Lake Constance, Germany, October, 28-31 2014, 2014, (pdf)
- Couhert A.; L. Cerri; JF Legeais; M. Ablain; N. Zelensky; B. Haines; F. Lemoine; W. Bertiger; S. Desai; M. Otten; Towards the 1 mm/y Stability of the Radial Orbit Error at Regional Scales. Advances in Space Research, 2014. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2014.06.041
- Dibarboure G., M-I. Pujol, F. Briol, P.-Y. Le Traon, G. Larnicol, N. Picot, F. Mertz, P. Escudier , M. Ablain, and C. Dufau: Jason-2 in DUACS: first tandem results and impact on processing and products, Mar. Geod., OSTM Jason-2 Calibration/Validation Special Edition – Part 2, (34), 214-241, doi:10.1080/01490419.2011.584826, 2011
- Dibarboure, G., F. Boy, J.D. Desjonqueres, S. Labroue, Y. Lasne, N. Picot, J.C. Poisson and P.Thibaut: Investigating Short-Wavelength Correlated Errors on Low-Resolution Mode Altimetry, J. Atmospheric Ocean. Technol., 31, 1337–1362. doi:10.1175/JTECH-D-13-00081.1, 2014
- Ducet N., P.-Y Le Traon., G. Reverdin: Global high-resolution mapping of ocean circulation from TOPEX/Poseidon and ERS-1 and -2, J. Geophys. Res. 105 (C8), 19,477-19,498, 2000
- Dufau, C., Orstynowicz, M., Dibarboure, G., Morrow, R., and La Traon, P.-Y.: Mesoscale Resolution Capability of altimetry: present & future, J. Geophys. Res, 121, 4910–4927, doi:10.1002/2015JC010904, 2016.
- Juza, M., Escudier, R., Pascual, A., Pujol, M.-I., Taburet, G., Troupin, C., Mourre, B., and Tintoré, J.: Impacts of reprocessed altimetry on the surface circulation and variability of the Western Alboran Gyre, Adv. Space Res., 58, 277–288, doi:10.1016/j.asr.2016.05.026, 2016.
- Lagerloef, G.S.E., G.Mitchum, R.Lukas and P.Niiler: Tropical Pacific near-surface currents estimated from altimeter, wind and drifter data,J. Geophys. Res., 104, 23,313-23,32, 1999
- Legeais J.-F., M. Ablain and S. Thao. Evaluation of wet troposphere path delays from atmospheric reanalyses and radiometers and their impact on the altimeter sea level. Ocean Science, 10, 893-905, 2014. doi: 10.5194/os-10-893-2014. (pdf)
- Le Traon, P.-Y., and F. Ogor: ERS-1/2 orbit improvement using TOPEX/POSEIDON: The 2 cm challenge. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 8045–8057, 1998.
- Le Traon P.-Y., F. Nadal, N. Ducet, An Improved Mapping Method of Multisatellite Altimeter Data, ?, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol. 15, 522-534, 1998
- LeTraon P.-Y, Y. Faugere, F. Hernamdez, J. Dorandeu, F. Mertz and M. Abalin: Can We Merge GEOSAT Follow-On with TOPEX/Poseidon and ERS-2 for an Improved Description of the Ocean Circulation?, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 20, 889-895, 2003
- Marcos M., Pascual, A., and Pujol, M.-I.: Improved satellite altimeter mapped sea level anomalies in the Mediterranean Sea: A comparison with tide gauges, Adv. Space Res., 56, 596–604, doi:10.1016/j.asr.2015.04.027, 2015.
- Mulet, S., Rio, M. H., Greiner, E., Picot, N., and Pascual, A.: New global Mean Dynamic Topography from a GOCE geoid model, altimeter measurements and oceanographic in-situ data, OSTST Boulder USA 2013, (pdf)
- Mulet, S. Apport de la mission GOCE pour l’analyse de la circulation océanique, Thèse en océanographie physique, 2013. Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
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- Rio, M.-H., Pascual, A., Poulain, P.-M., Menna, M., Barceló, B., and Tintoré, J. (2014b). Computation of a new mean dynamic topography for the Mediterranean Sea from model outputs, altimeter measurements and oceanographic in situ data. Ocean Sci., 10, 731-744, doi:10.5194/os-10-731-2014.
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- SL_cci Comprehensive Error Characterization Report, CLS-DOS-NT-13-100, SLCCI-ErrorReport-030-2-2, Jul. 29,2016, (pdf)
- Tran N., S. Philipps, J.-C. Poisson, S. Urien, E. Bronner, N. Picot, "Impact of GDR_D standards on SSB corrections", Presentation OSTST2012 in Venice, 2012, (pdf)
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